Social Injustice Against Hispanics and Latinos - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2195 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2019/04/05 Category Society Essay Level High school Tags: Social Justice Essay Did you like this example? There are roughly 58 million Latinos/Hispanics currently residing in the United States (Flores, 2017). Making up 17 percent of the population, Latino/Hispanic Americans are the second-largest ethnic group in the United States, after non-Hispanic whites (Sue et al., 2016). This makes them the majority minority, as their population is over 4 percent larger than African Americans (Sue et al., 2016). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Social Injustice Against Hispanics and Latinos" essay for you Create order With a 2 percent average annual growth rate, they are also the second-fastest growing population, trailing Asian Americans who have a 3 percent growth rate (Flores, 2017). This growth is a result of both immigration and birth rates. The percentage of Latinos/Hispanics who are immigrants has decreased in recent years, but immigrants still make up 34 percent of the total population while the other 66 percent were born on American soil (Flores, 2017). Hispanic/Latino is an umbrella term that is inclusive of several different nationalities. The fourteen largest subgroups in order from largest to smallest are Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Salvadorians, Cubans, Dominicans, Guatemalans, Colombians, Hondurans, Spaniards, Ecuadorians, Peruvians, Nicaraguans, Venezuelans, and Argentineans. Mexicans are by far the largest subgroup, accounting for 64 percent of the total Latino/Hispanic population (Sue et al., 2016). Undocumented Mexican immigrants make up 59 percent of the total undocumented population (Sue et al., 2016). Because these undocumented immigrants have no legal status, they are often forced to take labor-intensive jobs. For example, 68 percent of all farmworkers in the United States are from Mexico (Sue et al., 2016). Latinos/Hispanics also have the lowest levels of educational attainment of any racial or ethnic group in the United States. They have the highest high school drop-out rate, at 10 percent, compared to 7 percent for Blacks, 5 percent for Whites, and 3 percent for Asians (Gramlich, 2017). It is important to note, however, that this is a record low, down from 34 percent in 1998 (Gramlich, 2017). This is particularly significant because the number of Latino/Hispanic students enrolled in public and private schools has increased by 80 percent between 1999 and 2016. Interestingly, it has fallen 14 percent among White students (Gramlich, 2017). The number of Latino/Hispanic high school graduates enrolled in college between the ages of 18 and 24 has also jumped by 15 percent since 1999 (Gramlich, 2017). Despite these recent trends, Latinos/Hispanics are still more likely to hold blue-collar, semi-skilled, or unskilled occupations. Further, they have high rates of unemployment. Considering these statistics, it is unsurprising that the median income for Latino/Hispanic households in 2010 was $37,759, compared to $53,642, which was the median income for White households (Sue et al., 2016). The average age among Latinos/Hispanics is twenty-seven, compared to the national average of thirty-seven. This makes them the youngest ethnic or racial group in the United States. The seven leading causes of death for this group are cancer, heart disease, unintentional injuries, stroke, diabetes, chronic liver disease, and cirrhosis (Sue et al., 2016). Latinos/Hispanics are also at higher risk for a number of health issues, including asthma, HIV/AIDS, obesity, teen pregnancy, and infant mortality (book). Mental health has also been discovered to be a struggle for the Latino/Hispanic population. Female Latino/Hispanic teenagers are 70 percent more likely to attempt to commit suicide than their White peers, and Latino/Hispanic men are five times more likely to commit suicide than Latino/Hispanic women (Sue et al., 2016). Unfortunately, despite all of this, Latino/Hispanics are widely uninsured and underinsured (Sue et al., 2016). Historical Overview Many people have this popular vision of Latinos as people who arrived day before yesterday, but when you think about the first European settlement in what would become the United States, it was St. Augustine in 1565. That predates Jamestown in 1607. The first European language spoken, in what would become the United States, is Spanish (Gartland, 2015). Vicki Ruiz (Historian) The full history of Latinos/Hispanics in the United States is extensive and complicated, and it falls outside of the scope of this paper. To briefly summarize, Mexico was formerly controlled by Spain, who sent Mexican citizens on mission settlements along the coast of California to occupy the land. In 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain (Gartland, 2015). Then, just fifteen years later in 1846, the new United States began expanding westward, and they seized control of California, starting a war with freshly independent Mexico (Gartland, 2015). The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in 1848, officially ending the Mexican-American war after which the United States granted all Latinos/Hispanics living in California American citizenship and voting rights (Gartland, 2015). This effectively marked the beginning of Latino/Hispanic oppression in the United States as they had just been conquered and would not be treated equally. Latinos and Hispanics in America today experience oppression in many forms, and on every social level. Tension runs deep because of the anti-immigration climate. Stereotypes have strongly encouraged the negative feelings non-Hispanic Whites feel towards Latinos/Hispanics. A few examples of stereotypes spread today are that Latinos/Hispanics (specifically Mexicans) are uneducated, untrustworthy, lazy. A seemingly contradictory stereotype to lazy is that they come into the country illegally to steal American jobs. They are also believed to be rapists and murderers. These stereotypes were founded with racist, cultural imperialist ideology and they have actively worked to oppress this population. Social workers must work to become culturally competent, so they can easily identify the strengths and resiliency of individuals to help them overcome oppression. Social Work Practice Familismo Arguably the central characteristic of Latino/Hispanic culture is the value and importance of familismo. Familismo is an ideology that puts a priority on the family. The definition of family for Latinos/Hispanics includes immediate family, extended family, and close friends. Because of the centrality of strong social and familial relationships, Latinos/Hispanics may wait to seek outside help until resources from extended family and close friends have been exhausted (Sue et al., 2016). Religion also plays a vital role in Hispanic/Latino culture; roughly 80 percent of the population is Christian, with about 50 percent Catholic (Ayon, Ojeda, Ruano, 2018). For social work practice, this means that before seeking professional help, Latinos/Hispanics may first visit a priest and another religious leader. To conduct culturally competent social work practice with Latinos/Hispanics, social workers must recognize the value of family and religion. In American culture, the emphasis is placed on the individual, which is different compared to the emphasis on family in Latino/Hispanic culture. To accommodate this cultural difference, social workers should involve the entire family in assessment and even intervention (Villatoro et al., 2014). Familismo is a key strength in Latino/Hispanic culture. Therefore, by utilizing the family in practice, the strengths perspective is employed, and progress can be made. Cultural Socialization A significant percentage, 34 percent, of Latinos/Hispanics in the United States are immigrants (Sue et al., 2016). Being an immigrant comes with its own set of challenges, especially considering the anti-immigration political climate. Many White, non-Hispanic Americans are concerned with the coloring of the country and are in favor of a ban on immigration. More than half of Mexican children have at least one immigrant parent, and there are roughly 9 million mixed-status families, in which one parent is undocumented, and one is natural-born (Ayon, Ojeda, Ruano, 2018). For undocumented immigrants, the threat of detainment and deportation disrupts the stability of the family, adding stress and therefore putting the health of the individuals in the household at risk. Further, the state of being undocumented severely limits access to resources. These hardships may be considered a form of oppression, as they are secondary consequences some Latino/Hispanic families face because of their im migration or documentation statues. Cultural socialization is a difficult task for parents as they struggle to negotiate aspects of their host culture and integrate aspects of the dominant culture. Parents want their children to understand that they have a story that did not start here in the United States (Ayon, Ojeda, Ruano, 2018). To teach their children about their heritage, Latino/Hispanic parents tell stories, make traditional food dishes, travel to their origin countries, speak Spanish in the home, and attend traditional events and celebrations with their children. Often, parents use photos and the internet as tools to facilitate learning. When children were faced with discrimination, story-telling served as a mechanism whereby parents built counter-narratives that challenged anti-immigration discourse (Ayon, Ojeda, Ruano, 2018). This is noteworthy because it highlights the parents ability to use an otherwise negative situation as a learning experience for their children. Social workers can also adopt practice s to help the process of cultural socialization further. They can evaluate how important maintaining and preserving the host culture is to the particular family member and allow them to discuss feelings and thoughts about acclimating to American culture. They can also provide support and empowerment to parents, who are also trying to strike a balance between both cultures. Lastly, they can promote parent-child bonding by incorporating the same tools parents use, such as the internet, into practice. Latina Mothers A subgroup within the Latino/Hispanic group that may experience a rather excessive amount of oppression are mothers, specifically who are undocumented immigrants. A study that analyzed the interviews of 32 undocumented Mexican mothers discovered that they faced every form of oppression on Youngs Model, which are exploitation, violence, marginalization, cultural imperialism, and powerlessness (Ayon, Gurrola, Messing, Valencia-Garcia, 2018). Employers exploited their labor by hanging their undocumented status over their heads. On top of being forced to work under poor conditions, more was expected from these women than from their documented coworkers. Further, they were paid lower wages, forced to work unpaid overtime, and given no vacation days (Ayon, Gurrola, Messing, Valencia-Garcia, 2018). These Latino/Hispanic mothers also experienced several types of violence. Psychological abuse was a repeated theme as these mothers explained how employers took advantage of their legal status and consistently threatened to fire them or have them deported if expectations were not met (Ayon, Gurrola, Messing, Valencia-Garcia, 2018). Marginalization also had a significant impact on the well-being of the mothers. As the law is written, undocumented immigrants have minimal rights, which means limited access to social services. The women experienced marginalization in normal society on a daily basis as well. Several of the women reported being turned away from stores or not being allowed to purchase or return items (Ayon, Gurrola, Messing, Valencia-Garcia, 2018). Cultural imperialism in America is the idea that American culture is the best way, the only way, and the right way. This ideology is fairly widespread across the country, which makes it unsurprising that Latino/Hispanic mothers have been belittled for speaking Spanish, told they should speak English, and judged for the number of children they have (Ayon, Gurrola, Messing, Valencia-Garcia, 2018). In every case, the mothers felt powerless primarily because of documentation status and the unsteadiness of the situation. These reports showed the resiliency of Latino/Hispanic women. The value of family was apparent based on the levels of oppression and injustice these women endured for their children. The core mission of social work is to enhance the well-being of people who are oppressed and promote social justice. In this case, social workers are tasked with finding a way to get these women access to mental health resources. This is important because they sustain loads of stress that can negatively impact their health and the health of their families. Social workers should also advocate for policy change and inform mothers of their rights. Promoting more interaction between the Latino/Hispanic groups and the dominant group would also serve to challenge stereotypes and combat discrimination (Ayon, Gurrola, Messing, Valencia-Garcia, 2018). Language When it comes to culture, language is one of the most important aspects. Part of preserving the culture is preserving Spanish. Since the Mexican-American war, however, there has been a goal to eradicate Spanish in th e United States (Cobas Feagin, 2008). Language, therefore, provides yet another avenue for oppression. Non-Hispanic White Americans have used five strategies to oppress language among Hispanics. The most common strategy is simple silencing; we only speak English in America, rhetoric aims to pressure Hispanics to drop their native tongue. Another strategy is mocking Hispanic accents. Some White customers even refuse to work with Hispanic personnel because of their accents. A close friends aunt attested that a client refused to work with her because she had, too much of an accent. Ignoring Spanish speakers has also been used to discourage use of the language by making Hispanics feel inferior and worthless. Voicing suspicion, like announcing distrust in Spanish speakers, is another strategy used to create a hostile environment towards those who speak their native language. One would think that learning English would stop the negativity, but doubting proficiency is perhaps a desperate effort to oppress Hispanics. Interestingly, European accents are not discriminated against like Spanish is. This comes down to the bottom line that racism is a driving force in oppression. While Hispanic defines an ethnicity, people who identify as Hispanic are often people of color. Hispanics enjoy speaking in their native tongue because, it is a richer form of communication (Cobas Feagin, 2008). A bilingual friend has even said that things just get lost in translation; Spanish is a romance language after all. To build more culturally competent social work practice with Hispanic Americans, it would be beneficial to employ translators, especially because there are many Hispanics who need help but are not proficient in English.

Hiroshima And Nagasaki, Japan, And Japan - 2342 Words

On August 6th and 9th; the American military leadership dropped two atomic hydrogen bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan; in an attempt to expedite the end of a war that consumed the world. It was then, on these days that a small few experienced; while the whole world watched as utter destruction unfold as the two bombs did what they were created to do, decimate the Japanese resolve. A resolve that shook and intimated the most courageous of convictions, a resolve that ushered a generation of willing kamikaze fighters; it was these fighters that embodied the essence of Japanese spirit. It was this spirit that overwhelmed others to act and drop a bomb that was not only physically damaging but psychologically effective. President Truman of†¦show more content†¦To explore the difference in conventional and nuclear weapons, and how this drastic change of warfare directly manipulates psychology on a level distinct from previous weapons, utilizing a different aspect of war. Reali zing the historical significance of the development of nuclear warfare, and it how it changed World War II through psychological warfare. Hiroshima, a military stronghold in Japan during 1945 was a prime target for any military airstrike; along with Nagasaki, a naval and industrial port vital to the Japanese war effort. An image on the reasoning behind why American leadership chose to bomb these two cities start to form. The Committee under President Truman at the time realized the tremendous advantages to targeting these two locations, â€Å"We believed that our attacks had struck cities which must certainly be important to the Japanese military leaders, both Army and Navy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Malloy 19). Outlining the necessary surrender conditions upon Japan, July 28 the Potsdam ultimatum was issued to the Premier of Japan, and dutifully rejected. The plans were set and the options weighted, August 6th rolled around and the order was given. Over the intercom around 7:09 the American scouting plane reports â€Å"Fair weather, ready for air raid† (Ishikawa and Swain 21); by 7 am the Japanese citizens and workers wer e preparing for a traditional air raid as the Japanese spots the plane above. A similar scene occurs during

Symptoms And Symptoms Of Anxiety Disorders - 1075 Words

â€Å"Anxiety is often defined as a more prolonged state of tension, worry, and apprehension regarding uncertain, and potentially negative, future events† (Duval, Javanbakht, Liberzon 2015). In other words anxiety is completely normal and it works alongside fear in something called your Fight-or-Flight response. Your Fight-or-Flight response gears your body up to fight or to flee. Anxiety only becomes a problem when it gets excessive and your life starts to deteriorate. Knowing this, anxiety and stress disorders are one of the more prevalent categories of mental illnesses, affecting around 18% of Americans. There are multiple types of anxiety disorders which include Social Anxiety Disorder, Panic Disorder, Generalized Anxiety Disorder, and Specific Phobia. Generalized Anxiety Disorder is more common than the other anxiety disorders. There are also treatment methods that have been proven to work. 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Indian Cuisine and Malaysian Local Delicacies free essay sample

1. Local Delicacies Malaysian local delicacies is one of the most diverse and unique cuisine among all the Asian food for three reasons. Firstly is the bursting myriad of flavours of Malay cuisine that is succulent, tender and fragrant. For example is the national dish nasi lemak, spicy and succulent beef or chicken rendang and roti jala, best served with some sambal and chicken curry that can really stimulate your appetite. Second is the heritage of fiery and spicy flavours of Indian food such as tandoori chicken, the flaky and flavoured with ghee paratha bread, and the roti canai which can be eaten either alone or along with the curry. And also do not forget the famous nasi biryani, which has never failed to satisfy your appetite. Last but not least is the simple stir fry technique of Chinese cuisine to tantalize your taste buds. For example is the char kuey teow with clams, beansprout and prawns, yong tau foo with soup or thick dark gravy and the Cantonese special cuisine, dim sum. To conclude, Malaysian local delicacies is one of the most diverse and unique delicacies to both local and abroad people. [190 words] 2. My Darling Pet Not so long ago when I was still in high school, I used to have a bunch of pets with assorted personalities, back then before my family and I moved to Putrajaya. Kuning, our very first pet was a timid cat when we first saw her sitting on top of kitchen’s wall. She was very lovely but always put her guard up and avoid every time we tried to approach her. We often found her just sit quietly on top of the wall, enjoying the view from up there. Eventually, she became our pet and had given birth to a bunch of adorable kittens since then. One of her kittens that happened to grow up to be a smart ‘lady-like’ cat was Putih. Putih was very polite and obedient. She used to wake my mother up every dawn, poking on my mother’s feet with her cute paws. On the other hand, her ‘half-brother’ Tompok or Tom for short was a very naughty cat. He has a weird habit of climbing up on our shoulder before eventually bite our head. I guess that is his way of showing us that he just being friendly. To conclude, no matter what their personalities are, my darling pets had never failed to filled my heart with joy in a once upon a time. [219 words] 3. Ideal Holiday Destination Each year thousands of people wish to spend their vacations holidaying either locally or abroad. There are many ideal holiday destinations with exquisite panoramas in the world. Out of those, Turkey is my most preferred destination for ideal holiday because of the natural beauties, diverse cultures and food. First of all, Turkey is the ideal vacation spot because of its natural beauties. For example, Pamukkale, meaning â€Å"cotton castle† in Turkish is an extraordinary place by virtue of its outstanding natural phenomena- balmy, profoundly mineralized water that elegantly cascading from springs and creating pools and terraces which are visually spectacular. Located in Denizli Province in south western Turkey, it is a mesmerizing place to visits. Beyond that, Turkey is the ideal holiday destination because of its culture. 4. My Neighbourhood I grew up in typical neighbourhood but the warmth feeling of the neighbourhood atmosphere makes it a nice place to live in. Firstly, it is safe to the presence of people day and night. Kids can play outside without any problems. There are night guard systems consists of a group of adult male residents and each group will take turned every night to make sure nothing like theft or burglary occur in our neighbourhood. Furthermore, everyone can walk around the neighbourhood without being afraid of someone might harm us since the neighbourhood is secure. I also like how people know each other in my neighbourhood. Everyone watch out for each other and they are always open to lend any help. Even though it has the regular noise of any place, there are times when you can hardly hear any noises. Of course, when all the kids got home from school, there will be more noises. But still, it is relatively quiet all day in my neighbourhood. In brief, my neighbourhood is really a great place to live. It is secure, was not too noisy, and most of all, the neighbours are very helpful. There is no place like home and that is my neighbourhood. [204 words] 5. A Friend A friend would be the people in my life that have known me like forever. And among all those people is Huda, my classmates from high school. We have been friends for so long until today. Huda is very tall and people can really recognize her among the crowds. She has got an oval face with big bright eyes, a high nose and a small mouth, with a cute mole on the upper of her lips. Huda is very bubbly and is easy to get along with. She is helpful, caring and honest. When her friends have difficulties, she always tries her best to help them. Although we nearly have the same tastes and interests, we have some different characters. I am quite reserved, timid and do not talk much. Unlike me, Huda is very friendly and enjoys telling jokes. However there is mutual trust and a perfect sympathy between us, so we easily becoming close friends. She likes to encourage me whenever I am down. She once told me not to be someone else, because that what makes me who I am. In short, Huda is really a true friend. And I think as time goes by, our friendship will be deeper and I hope we can be friend forever. [211 words]

Matsuo Basho - Father Of Haiku Essays - Japanese Poetry,

Matsuo Basho - Father Of Haiku Matsuo Basho Matsuo Basho radically redefined the three-line, 17-syllable haiku poetic form from an entertaining pastime in 16th-century Japan to a major literary genre in the 17th century. An early Basho haiku provides an example of his meticulous and sensitive approach in selecting and arranging words and images to produce highly evocative allusions: On a leafless bough In the gathering autumn dusk: A solitary crow! Haiku emanates from the 31 syllable, five-line tanka (short poem) which was originally arranged in two parts, an opening triplet (hokku) and a couplet. The Haiku form was popularized during the Heian period (794-1185). At that time, it was customary for the educated elite of Japan to engage in writing, singing, and reciting poetry as forms of cultural entertainment. In addition, social customs of the day demanded that the aristocracy of the refined court society display both a sensitivity to nature in their poetic expression and an ability to discuss the poetic classics of Japanese and Chinese literature. Tanka, then, could express a wealth of meaning in five elegant lines expressing a single idea, emotion, or observation. By the 16th century, tanka had found expression in playful and less refined experimental forms and began to attract the participation of the merchant classes as well. But it was not until Basho came along with an artistic sensibility, reflective calm, and keen originality, coupled with his formal training in Japanese and Chinese classics and poetry, that new power was infused into the haiku. Basho's greatest contribution to the genre was to take the opening triplet of the tanka (hokku) and make it an independent, autonomous form. The term haiku was formed from the first three letters of the word haikai (a 17-syllable comical verse) and the last two letters of the word hokku. The following, well-known Basho haiku serves as an example of the beauty of nature, the fleeting image of time, and a compression of language: Falling upon earth, Pure water spills from the cup of the camellia. At first glance, Falling Upon Earth offers a meditative reflection on the wonders of nature. The poem invites contemplation on the beauty of the camellia blossom and implicitly situates the tropical Asiatic evergreen tree in a calm, rural setting in Japan among the hidden forces of nature. Yet the power of Basho's haiku clearly emanates from his meticulous selection of words, his fleeting yet evocative imagery, and the ambiguity resulting from words having multiple meanings. The power word of the first line is falling. The ambiguity of who or what is falling immediately challenges meaning and entices the reader's active participation in the poem. In Japanese literature, the camellia blossom is often used as a symbolic representation of the samurai, a professional soldier of the feudal military aristocracy of Japan, whose life, like that of the camellia, was often brilliant but brief. The falling of the flower takes on an allegorical dimension since Basho once trained in the service o f a young samurai master who died unexpectedly. Basho grieved deeply and renounced his own samurai status. Thus, the implication of the camellia blossom moving abruptly from a state of natural beauty and vigor to one of quiet, somber death invites speculation on life's brevity, as well as the need to recognize and appreciate the rich, evocative images in nature. Likewise, while the word earth overtly suggests an objective description of nature, in fact, Basho might have selected ground or soil, with the apparent implication of a hard, flat, non-receptive surface. However, he skillfully positions the word earth to evoke connotations of the earth mother as receiver or absorber of the pure water that spills from the camellia, an image that immediately softens the ominous tone in lines one and two. Earth becomes the immediate vessel and eventual transmitter of the pure water of the camellia that will cycle the life force of the blossom and restore vital nutrients to the earth to replenish, regenerate, and revitalize the earth's bounty for new growth. Thus, the opening tone of a death that has spilled unexpectedly is balanced by the theme of rejuvenation as a poetic commentary on the cyclical nature of the universe and the ultimate need for humankind

Cultural Shift Example

Cultural Shift Example Cultural Shift – Coursework Example Cultural Shift: The Coca-Cola Super Bowl XLVII Advertisement The account of gay people in ifiedadvertisement is less than a decade. Over years, companies have come to accept the inclusion of gay families in their advertisements as part of telling their brand story to an inclusive market. One such advertisement is the Coca-Cola Multilanguage Super Bowl commercial on February 2, 2014 (Emery n.p). To America, this advertisement pioneered featuring the gay community through a gay couple that takes their daughter roller-skating. From the Gay & Lesbian Alliance against Defamation (GLAAD) and the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) community, the advertisement won in every way. Over the last decade, the shift in public opinion on same sex marriage from 58% in 2003 to 33% in 2013 is an indication of gradual acceptance attributed to huge group of youthful adults (Pew Research n.p). This ascent in the acceptance of gay rights has seen 17 states and the District of Colombia legalizi ng gay marriages. This shift is what the Coca-Cola advertisement took advantage of to show the country the growing majority of Americans from all occupations in favor and support of their LGBT family, friends, and neighbors. Further, the advertisement is a pacesetter to the corporate in America that successful business today also means including LGBT. According to (Ferraro n.p), the behind the scenes revealed one of the dads acknowledging that people can now accept and respect them as a family. Since Coca-Cola a sponsors the World Olympic, GLAAD has called upon the company to condemn anti-LGBT violence and laws hampering the lives of Russian LGBT people (Ferraro n.p).(a) (b)Figure (a) and (b) shows images of the gay couple roller-skating with their daughter and enjoying a coke. Source: Ferraro (n.p) Emery, Debbie. Super Bowl: Coca Cola Gay Dads Commercial Gets Thumbs Up From GLAAD (Video). 2 February 2014. Web. 3 September 2014.Ferraro, Rich. Watch now: Coca-Cola unveils gay-inclu sive ad during Super Bowl XLVIII. 2 February 2014. Web. 3 September 2014.Pew Research. Growing Support for Gay Marriage: Changed Minds and Changing Demographics. 20 March 2013. Web. 3 September 2014.

History of Portugal - Overview

History of Portugal - Overview Location of Portugal Portugal is located in the far west of Europe, on the Iberian Peninsular. It is bounded by Spain to the north and east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south and west. Historical Summary of Portugal The country of Portugal emerged in the tenth century during the Christian reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula: first as a region under the control of the Counts of Portugal and then, in the mid-twelfth century, as a kingdom under King Afonso I. The throne then went through a turbulent time, with several rebellions. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries overseas exploration and conquest in Africa, South America and India won the nation a rich empire. In 1580 a succession crisis led to a successful invasion by the King of Spain and Spanish rule, beginning an era known to opponents as the Spanish Captivity, but a successful rebellion in 1640 led to independence once more. Portugal fought alongside Britain in the Napoleonic Wars, whose political fallout led to a son of the King of Portugal becoming Emperor of Brazil; a decline in imperial power followed. The nineteenth century saw civil war, before a Republic was declared in 1910. However, in 1926 a military coup led to generals ruling until 1933, when a Professor called Salazar took over, ruling in an authoritarian manner. His retirement through illness was followed a few years later by a further coup, the declaration of the Third Republic and independence for African colonies. Key People from the History of Portugal Afonso HenriqueThe son of the Count of Portugal, Afonso Henrique was the rallying point for Portuguese nobles who feared losing their power to rival Galicians. Afonso won either a battle or a tournament and successfully expelled his mother, who was styled as Queen, and by 1140 was calling himself King of Portugal. He worked to establish his position, and by 1179 had persuaded the Pope to recognise him as king.Dom DinisNicknamed the farmer, Dinis is often the most highly regarded of the Burgundian dynasty, for he began the creation of a formal navy, founded the first university in Lisbon, promoted culture, founded one of the first insurance institutions for merchants and broadened trade. However, tensions grew among his nobles and he lost the Battle of Santarà ©m to his son, who took the crown as King Afonso IV.Antà ³nio SalazarA Professor of Political Economy, Salazar was invited in 1928 by Portugal’s military dictatorship to join the government and resolve a financial crisi s. In 1933 he was promoted to Prime Minister, and he ruled – if not as a dictator (though an argument can be made that he was), then certainly as a repressive, anti-parliamentary authoritarian, until illness forced him to retire in 1974. Rulers of Portugal